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Nondestructive Evaluation of Forest Biomaterials: A Global Perspective

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A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Wood Science and Forest Products".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 July 2021) | Viewed by 36037

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Robert J. Ross

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Guest Editor

USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI, USA
Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA
Interests: wood engineering; nondestructive evaluation and assessment

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Knowledge of the fundamental properties of forest biomaterials is essential for their optimal utilization. The international forest products research community has investigated the use of a wide range of technologies to nondestructively evaluate important properties with the goal of the development and use of equipment and procedures for the assessment of forest biomaterials, from seedlings to historic timber structures.

This Special Issue of Forests is focused on the nondestructive testing and evaluation of wood, forest products, and timber structures. It will include a paper on nondestructive evaluation that will provide a historical perspective and review of fundamental principles. Papers, prepared by internationally recognized technical authorities, that summarize the state-of-the-art in the application of these principles and current research activities from around the world will be included.

Dr. Robert J. Ross
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Forests is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

nondestructive
evaluation
assessment
wood trees
timber
structures

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

24 pages, 16930 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Non-Destructive Assessment of the Elastic Properties of Low-Grade CLT Panels

by Alexander Opazo-Vega, Franco Benedetti, Mario Nuñez-Decap, Nelson Maureira-Carsalade and Claudio Oyarzo-Vera

Forests 2021, 12(12), 1734; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12121734 - 09 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2438

Abstract

The use of cross-laminated timber panels (CLT) made of low-grade structural timber has steadily increased in developing countries. These panels usually present several natural defects, which can cause a high local variation of their orthotropic elastic properties, generating future structural serviceability problems. Our work aims to estimate the local variability of the elastic properties in low-grade CLT panels by combining nondestructive transverse vibration testing, numerical simulations, and regional sensitivity analysis (RSA). Four three-layer Radiata pine CLT panels were subjected to transverse vibration tests with supports at four points. Besides, a series of numerical simulations of the panels, considering the local variability of the elastic properties of the panels in eight zones, were carried out using the finite element method. Then, RSA analysis was performed to study in which ranges of values the panels’ elastic properties generated lower differences between the measured versus simulated dynamic properties. Finally, a structural quality control indicator was proposed for the CLT panels based on keeping low the probability that the elastic properties in the central zones do not exceed minimum acceptable values. The results obtained suggest that the proposed methodology is suitable for segregating CLT panels with high concentrations of defects such as pith presence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Evaluation of Forest Biomaterials: A Global Perspective)

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12 pages, 1899 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustaining Biomaterials in Bioeconomy: Roles of Education and Learning in Mekong River Basin

by Thaworn Onpraphai, Attachai Jintrawet, Bounthanh Keoboualapha, Suprapat Khuenjai, Ruijia Guo, Jing Wang and Jun Fan

Forests 2021, 12(12), 1670; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12121670 - 30 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1715

Abstract

The demands to improve the livelihood of small farmers require a systemic shift from fossil fuel-based and destructive approaches to sustainable renewable raw materials and non-destructive approaches. This should be accompanied by a fundamental reorganization of education and learning policies to create new bio-oriented value chains for biomaterials, food, wood, and energy, as well as in large parts of the health, manufacturing, and service industries. In the long run, the successful implementation of bio-oriented production depends on the systemic linking of both first- and second-hand learning in communities in rural as well as urban settings. The purpose of this paper is to present a concept for the co-design of a new curriculum to better equip new graduates with the ability to support the effort of the sustainable production of biomaterials that are non-destructive to the environment. To sustain biomaterials and enhance non-destructive ways of thinking, learning needs a community of practice in both online and onsite platforms—allowing students to better understand and support cascade use. Therefore, the use of by-products and recycling products after use will increase in importance. A community of practice, and institutions, must create education and learning platforms for improved actions regarding biomaterials across generations and experiences, which will subsequently be integrated into the circular value chains of the bioeconomy. The first- and second-hand learning to sustain these value chains depends on higher education and learning institutions with both legal mandates and systems approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Evaluation of Forest Biomaterials: A Global Perspective)

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25 pages, 11778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Method of Hyperbola Recognition in Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) B-Scan Image for Tree Roots Detection

by Xiaowei Zhang, Fangxiu Xue, Zepeng Wang, Jian Wen, Cheng Guan, Feng Wang, Ling Han and Na Ying

Forests 2021, 12(8), 1019; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12081019 - 30 Jul 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3017

Abstract

Ground penetrating radar (GPR), as a newly nondestructive testing technology (NDT), has been adopted to explore the spatial position and the structure of the tree roots. Due to the complexity of soil distribution and the randomness of the root position in the natural environment, it is difficult to locate the root in the GPR B-Scan image. In this study, a novel method for root detection in the B-scan image by considering both multidirectional features and symmetry of hyperbola was proposed. Firstly, a mixed dataset B-Scan images were employed to train Faster RCNN (Regions with CNN features) to obtain the potential hyperbola region. Then, the peak area and its connected region were filtered from the four directional gradient graphs in the proposed region. The symmetry test was applied to segment the intersecting hyperbolas. Finally, two rounds of coordinate transformation and line detection based on Hough transform were employed for the hyperbola recognition and root radius and position estimation. To validate the effectiveness of this approach for tree root detection, a mixed dataset was made, including synthetic data from gprMax as well as field data collected from 35 ancient tree roots and fresh grapevine controlled experiments. From the results of hyperbola recognition as well as the estimation for the radius and position of the root, our method shows a significant effect in root detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Evaluation of Forest Biomaterials: A Global Perspective)

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21 pages, 7478 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Imaging Internal Defects in Living Trees on Irregular Contours of Tree Trunks Using Ground-Penetrating Radar

by Fangxiu Xue, Xiaowei Zhang, Zepeng Wang, Jian Wen, Cheng Guan, Hongyan Han, Jingcheng Zhao and Na Ying

Forests 2021, 12(8), 1012; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12081012 - 29 Jul 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1808

Abstract

The outer contours of living trees are often considered as a standard circle during non-destructive testing (NDT) of internal defects using ground-penetrating radar (GPR). However, the detection of classical cross-sections (circular) lacks consideration of irregular contours, making it difficult to accurately locate the radar image of the target. In this paper, we propose a method based on the image affine transformation and the Riemann mapping principle to analyze the effect of irregular detection routes on the geometric characteristics of target reflection hyperbola. First, for the similar output phenomenon in the “hyperbola fitting”, geometric analysis and numerical simulation were performed. Then, the conversion of irregular trunk radar images and physical domain radar images was implemented using the method of image affine transformation and the Riemann mapping principle. Finally, the influence of irregular detection routes on the geometry of the target reflection curve was investigated in detail through numerical simulations and actual experiments. The numerical simulation and measurement results demonstrated that the method in this study could better reflect the imaging characteristics of the target reflection hyperbola under the irregular detection pattern. This method provides assistance to further study the defects of irregular living trees and prevents the misjudgment of targets as a result of hyperbolic distortion, resulting in a greater prospect of application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Evaluation of Forest Biomaterials: A Global Perspective)

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11 pages, 1661 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Calibration of Electrical Resistance to Moisture Content for Beech Laminated Veneer Lumber “BauBuche S” and “BauBuche Q”

by Philippe Grönquist, Gianna Weibel, Claude Leyder and Andrea Frangi

Forests 2021, 12(5), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12050635 - 17 May 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2215

Abstract

Electrical resistance measurements are often employed for the purpose of nondestructive long-term monitoring of wood moisture content (MC) in timber structures. As a structural material for high-performance load-bearing applications in such structures, beech laminated veneer lumber (LVL) enjoys a growing popularity. However, due to the processing of beech LVL affecting physical properties, calibration curves for bulk beech wood cannot be used. In this study, resistance was measured on 160 beech LVL samples equilibrated in four different relative humidity (RH) climates. The results show a difference not only between the beech LVL products “BauBuche S” and “BauBuche Q”, but also between measurements at two different depths. For each data set, parameters for calibration models using two and using three model parameters were determined by regression analysis to MC determined by the gravimetric method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Evaluation of Forest Biomaterials: A Global Perspective)

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20 pages, 8816 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermodynamic Approach for the Identification of Instability in the Wood Using Acoustic Emission Technology

by Qi Zhao, Dong Zhao and Jian Zhao

Forests 2020, 11(5), 534; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11050534 - 10 May 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1977

Abstract

In order to monitor the crack growth of the wood material better and reduce failure risks, this paper studied the attenuation characteristics of acoustic emission signals in wood through pencil lead breaking (PLB) tests, in the aim of estimating the true amplitude value of the acoustic emission source signal. The tensile test of the double cantilever beam (DCB) specimens was used to simulate the crack tip growth within wood material, monitoring acoustic activity and location of crack tips within wood material using acoustic emission technology and digital image correlation (DIC). Results showed that the attenuation degree of acoustic emission signals increased exponentially as the propagation distance increased, and the relationship between relative amplitude attenuation rate and the propagation distance of the acoustic emission signal was established by the regression method, which provides the input parameters for the establishment of the crack instability prediction model in the next step. Based on a thermodynamic approach, a theoretical model for predicting crack instability was established, and the model was verified by DCB tests. The model uses acoustic emission parameters as the basis for judging whether the crack is instable. It provides theoretical support for the application of acoustic emission technology in wood health monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Evaluation of Forest Biomaterials: A Global Perspective)

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9 pages, 2566 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Direct Method of Measuring the pH Value of Wood

by Anton Geffert, Jarmila Geffertova and Michal Dudiak

Forests 2019, 10(10), 852; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10100852 - 30 Sep 2019

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 6901

Abstract

A direct method of measuring the pH value of wood substance is proposed in the paper. The achieved results were completed by determining the pH value on the wood surface using the contact method. Moreover, the results were compared to the results achieved using the indirect methods to determine the pH value in cold water, as well as hot water, extract of wood. Using the direct method for measuring the pH value in drilled fresh sawdust, the pH value of beech was 5.11, of birch was 5.29, of alder was 4.88, and of maple was 4.65. Following the achieved results, the possibility to measure the pH value using a fast, accurate method useful in practice complying with the condition of the minimum free water in wood (moisture content of wood above the fibre saturation point) was presented. The results of measurements of the pH value using the contact method on the wood surface showed that this method can be used in the case of coniferous as well as broadleaved trees with heartwood. The value of pH measured on the surface of pine was 4.50, of spruce was 4.79, of the heartwood of oak was 3.46, and of the sapwood of oak 5.04. The measurement of pH values of water extracts confirmed great dependence of measured values on the conditions of wood extraction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Evaluation of Forest Biomaterials: A Global Perspective)

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16 pages, 6892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Song Dynasty Shipwreck Monitoring and Analysis Using Acoustic Emission Technique

by Qi Zhao, Dong Zhao, Jian Zhao and Lihua Fei

Forests 2019, 10(9), 767; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10090767 - 04 Sep 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2282

Abstract

The monitoring of acoustic emission (AE) has allowed tracing of the damage in wooden cultural objects exposed to variations in ambient relative humidity (RH). A year-long on-site AE monitoring of the Song Dynasty shipwreck confirmed the usefulness of the technique in tracing climate-induced damage in wood. New coupling material is tested to make it conform to the conservation rules which is non-corrosive to monitoring objects and a reversible operation. As sensitive parameter of wood damage caused by variations RH, the accumulated ringing counting tends to increase with the increase of daily fluctuation of RH (DFRH). In addition, the damage of wooden cultural objects during shrinkage is stronger than that during swelling. The relationship between the probability of AE activity and the daily DFRH is established and it is determined that the daily variation of RH for long-term protection of the Song Dynasty shipwreck should be controlled within 4%, and an early warning will be given if it exceeds 10%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Evaluation of Forest Biomaterials: A Global Perspective)

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Review

Jump to: Research

12 pages, 3264 KiB

Open AccessReview

Use of Ground Penetrating Radar in the Evaluation of Wood Structures: A Review

by Brunela Pollastrelli Rodrigues, Christopher Adam Senalik, Xi Wu and James Wacker

Forests 2021, 12(4), 492; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12040492 - 16 Apr 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3588

Abstract

This paper is a review of published studies involving the use of ground penetrating radar (GPR) on wood structures. It also contains background information to help the reader understand how GPR functions. The use of GPR on wood structures began to grow in popularity at the turn of the millennium. GPR has many characteristics that make it attractive as an inspection tool for wood: it is faster than many acoustic and stress wave techniques; it does not require the use of a couplant; while it can also detect the presence of moisture. Moisture detection is of prime concern, and several researchers have labored to measure internal moisture using GPR. While there have been several laboratory studies involving the use of GPR on wood, its use as an inspection tool on large wood structures has been limited. This review identified knowledge gaps that need to be addressed to improve the efficacy of GPR as a reliable inspection tool of wood structure. Chief among these gaps, is the ability to distinguish the type of internal feature from the GPR output and the ability to identify internal decay. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Evaluation of Forest Biomaterials: A Global Perspective)

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14 pages, 3279 KiB

Open AccessReview

Application of Nondestructive Testing Technologies in Preserving Historic Trees and Ancient Timber Structures in China

by Pengfei Xu, Cheng Guan, Houjiang Zhang, Guanghui Li, Dong Zhao, Robert J. Ross and Yinlan Shen

Forests 2021, 12(3), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12030318 - 10 Mar 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2800

Abstract

In China, preserving historic trees and ancient timber structures has attracted more attention from researchers and institutions. Nondestructive testing (NDT) technology has gained momentum in the application and research in recent years. This paper presents some examples of the application of NDT techniques in the protection of historic trees and ancient timber structures in China. A total of nine NDT techniques were applied, including five techniques of visual inspection, sounding, Resistograph, stress wave transmission velocity, stress wave tomography for both historic trees and ancient timber structures, two techniques of the pulling-test and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) for historic trees alone, and two techniques of acoustic emission (AE) and digital imaging for ancient timber structures. Based on field testing, there is a very good detecting effect for visual inspection and Resistograph, but sounding works unsatisfactorily. The stress wave transmission velocity is found to be excellent in screening for the internal defects of historic tree trunks, but performs badly in screening for the internal defects within the wood members of ancient timber structures. AE is less successful but digital imaging performs well in long-term monitoring and damage warning of wood structures. The stress wave tomography successfully obtains images of internal defects inside tree trunks. The anchorage of some historic trees cannot be quantitatively evaluated with the pulling test if the tree is too large. GPR’s resolution and accuracy are very low, which limit its application. Theoretical research on NDT and promotion of NDT technology are still an essential part of the work in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Evaluation of Forest Biomaterials: A Global Perspective)

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9 pages, 673 KiB

Open AccessReview

Non-Destructive Lumber and Engineered Pine Products Research in the Gulf South U.S. 2005–2020

by R. Dan Seale, Rubin Shmulsky and Frederico Jose Nistal Franca

Forests 2021, 12(1), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/f12010091 - 15 Jan 2021

Viewed by 1792

Abstract

This review primarily describes nondestructive evaluation (NDE) work at Mississippi State University during the 2005–2020 time interval. Overall, NDE is becoming increasingly important as a means of maximizing and optimizing the value (economic, engineering, utilitarian, etc.) of every tree that comes from the forest. For the most part, it focuses on southern pine structural lumber, but other species such as red pine, spruce, Douglas fir, red oak, and white oak and other products such as engineered composites, mass timber, non-structural lumber, and others are included where appropriate. Much of the work has been completed in conjunction with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory as well as the Agricultural Research Service with the overall intent of improving lumber and wood products standards and valuation. To increase the future impacts and adoption of this NDE-related work, wherever possible graduate students have contributed to the research. As such, a stream of trained professionals is a secondary output of these works though it is not specifically detailed herein. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Evaluation of Forest Biomaterials: A Global Perspective)

9 pages, 2635 KiB

Open AccessReview

Methods for Nondestructive Testing of Urban Trees

by Richard Bruce Allison, Xiping Wang and Christopher A. Senalik

Forests 2020, 11(12), 1341; https://doi.org/10.3390/f11121341 - 16 Dec 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3225

Abstract

Researchers have developed various methods and tools for nondestructively testing urban trees for decay and stability. A general review of these methods includes simple visual inspection, acoustic measuring devices, microdrills, pull testing, ground penetrating radar, x-ray scanning, remote sensing, electrical resistivity tomography and [...] Read more.

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Evaluation of Forest Biomaterials: A Global Perspective)

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